Chapter 24

1. Positivism- a theory that theology and metaphysics are earlier imperfect modes of knowledge, and that positive knowledge is based on natural phenomena and their properties and relations are verified by the empirical science. [1st stage- theological, 2nd- metaphysical, 3rd- positive]
2. Papal Infallibility- this was the belief started in the mid 1800s that God protects the pope from error when he speaks of faith and morality. This was put into place after the First Vatican Council (1869), summoned by Pope Pius IX. Never before had the pope personally had so much authority within the church.
3. Albert Einstein- in 1905, he published his papers on relativity. He said that time and space are not 2 separate things but rather they are a combined continuum. It also said that the measurement of time and space depends on the observer as well as on the entities being measured.
4. On the Origin of Species- this was written by Charles Darwin and published in 1859. In it was the theory of natural selection, which explained how species evolved over time. While he was not the first to present the theory of evolution, he was the first to explain how it could occur. It was extremely controversial, especially with religion.
5. Darwin’s Natural Selection- This is Darwin’s theory that basically states survival of the fittest. The strongest, best adapted organisms are the ones who will survive and they will pass their genes along to the next generation which will be stronger. This theory undermined the existence of God because people now believed that things could happen, organisms could evolve, by themselves.
6. Social Darwinism- This was advocated by Herbert Spencer, a British philosopher who was influenced by Darwin’s theory of natural selection. He believed that natural selection/evolution principles applied to society as well. He believed that human society progressed through competition and therefore, the weak should not be protected; they should just die out.
7. The Positive Philosophy
8. Kulturkampf- (1871-1883). Translated, this means cultural struggle. Basically it was part of Bismarck’s overall plan to unite the Germans with the same culture. He  felt that the Germans couldn’t be devoted to their country and the church so he started a battle against the Roman Catholic Church for control over school and ecclesiastical appointments and civil marriage. While he in the end gained control of education and civil marriage, he really lost because he provoked major Catholic resentment against the German state.
9. Friedrich Niezsche- he was a mental person. hehe. He was a German philosopher who was extremely against Christianity. He believed that it was just a crutch that should have been discarded long ago. He said that God is dead. He believed that there is no evil, only good. Also that one day a Ubermensch (superhuman, superman) would emerge, which inspired the Nazis and their super human race stuff. He was a major believer in positivism.
10. Herbert Spencer– he was a British philosopher who advocated Social Darwinism. He was very influenced by Darwin’s theory of natural selection and believed it applied to society. He was a strong individualists and used social darwinism to justify not helping the poor and working class.
11. Georges Sorel– He was a French philosopher in the late 1800’s who was a theorist of revolutionary syndicalism. He believed that the labor force would take over and govern themselves. This was a form of anarchist beliefs. This branch believed that people should overthrow capitalism and the state.
12. Sigmund Freud– he is a famous psychologist from the late 1800’s. he made many theories and discoveries in the realm of the mind. he came up with the ego, the id, and the superego theory. He hypothesized about the root of dreams and talked of sexual desires in all ages. He pioneered in many new psychological discoveries and changed a lot of thinking in psychology.
13. Psychoanalysis- This was Sigmund Freud’s new method of studying the mind and psychological therapy. He helped disorders through studying the unconsious mind. He also found the sources of dreams and mental feelings with this new method. He developed his theory of personality within this analysis with the id, ego, and superego.
14. The ego, the id, the superego- These are three separate functions and feelings of the mind. The id, is the instinctual trend in all people. The ego is the realistic organized part, and the superego is the critical and moralizing part. Freud named these parts of the conscious as part of his psychoanalysis study.
15. Social Darwinism- REPEAT
16. Impressionism- this was an art movement on the everyday life of the middle and high classes from 1860-1890. The painting style is very distinct, with many colors mixed together in a rough style. It started in France and was pioneered by Claude Monet. Some famous painters of this time were Manet, Monet, Degas, Merisot, Renoir, and Pissaro.
17. Post-Impressionism- This was an art movement that closely followed impressionism. It was from 1890-1914 and it was basically the same as impressionism. It emphasized slighlty different things such as emotional expression and the formal structure of objects. Famous artists of this style include Seurat and Van Gogh.
18. Monet– This man was a famous French impressionist artist in the late 1800’s. He pioneered the impressionist age and has many famous paintings. He used new techniques of blending bright colors of high society. His paintings are very famous now and considered high quality art. His most famous painting is Lily Pads and Impressionism, Sunrise.
19. Cubism– This was a very different art movement in the early 20th century. It was mainly started by Pablo Picasso in France. He emphasized flat, 2-D figures, and took different angles of one objects and put them together to make a new reality. He and other cubists frequently painted letters, instruments, bottles, pitchers, glasses, and newspapers.
20. Zionism- This was a new idea and movement created by Theodor Herzl. He wanted to protect the Jews from the increasing discrimination against them. His idea was to create a separate Jewish state, where Jews could have rights and be happy. His end goal was to re-create the nation of Israel.
21. Boers- This was a dutch word for farmer. In the 19th century it was a different term. It described the proto- Afrikaans who inhabited Cape Good Hope, South Africa. They then fled to escape the British and tribal fights on the South African land.